INTRODUCTION TO THE HEART SUTRA
Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana
Not too long ago if someone said that form is emptiness, or the external world is actually a creation of the mind, most people would think he was talking non-sense. But now not only scientists but also the general public realize that these two statements are universal truths. What is amazing, though it may not be generally known, is that virtually all the latest, exciting theories in science that attempt to explain reality, such as whether shadow matter is real, or whether life exists in other planes, have been described in detail in Buddhist philosophy. Both science and Buddhism address themselves to the question "What is reality?" But while science is mainly concerned with the reality of the phenomenal world, the concern of Buddhism is both phenomenal and transcendental.
Of the three main traditions of Buddhism today -- Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana -- Mahayana Buddhism is best known for its majestic grandeur. For some reasons, Western understanding of Buddhism is mainly through Theravada sources from Sri Lanka, although Vajrayana Buddhism from Tibetan sources is now becoming popular. The bulk of Mahayana literature, which is now mainly in Chinese, is almost untapped. This is lamentable, for in Mahayana Buddhism is found great wisdom that is still relatively unknown to the West, but which is exceedingly helpful in solving many secular as well as spiritual problems currently afflicting Western societies. This, of course, does not mean that wisdom derived from Theravada and Vajrayana literature is not helpful; but as these three main traditions of Buddhism place different emphasis on the quest for reality, the resultant knowledge recorded in their literatures has their own distinctive features.
Although the following generalization would be modified in different situations, and some quarters may protest against this generalization, if a short description is needed to illustrate the basic difference between Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, it is appropriate to say that Theravada is mainly concerned with moral purity, Mahayana with cosmic reality, and Vajrayana with spiritual mysticism. It must be remembered that Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana are not three different Buddhisms, but three different developments of the same Buddhism. According to the Mahayanist viewpoint, which Theravadins naturally oppose, Theravada Buddhism is a preparatory stage for the higher wisdom found in Mahayana. On the other hand, Theravadins regard Mahayana Buddhism as an adulterated development from the original teaching as taught by Guatama Buddha. Vajrayana Buddhism branched out from Mahayana, with much influence from Indian Tantrism and the native Tibetan Bon religion. However, both Theravadins and Mahayanists strongly disagree with the Vajrayanist practice of using sex as a means of spiritual training. All Theravada and Mahayana monks are strictly celibate, and while lay followers may enjoy family lives, their sexual activities must be legitimate.
What benefit can we get from a study of Mahayana Buddhism can be suggested by the following comment from Professor Edward Conze:
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Nearly every day we meet people who almost frantically yearn for some Shangri-la to take them away from the horrors of this civilization, for some island which will do for them what Tahiti did for Paul Gauguin. Nothing could satisfy their longings better than the quiet splendours of the Mahayana.
How is this possible? How do 260 words summarize the profound philosophy expounded in thousands of volumes, which, among other things, describe many great truths rediscovered by science many centuries later? The Heart Sutra also represents the development of the Buddhist teaching from Theravada through Mahayana to Vajrayana. All these interesting points will be found in the course of this book.
Importance of the Heart Sutra
The more than 6000 volumes of sutras or scriptures in the Buddhist Canon are classified into twelve categories. The Wisdom Sutras, consisting of 701 volumes, constitute the largest category. They are called wisdom sutras because they explain the transcendental wisdom, or prajna, of Buddhism, which constitutes the fundamental philosophy of Mahayana.
These wisdom sutras are classified into groups. The largest group is the colossal Great Wisdom Sutras (Da Ban Rou Jing, 600 volumes), a volume of which is the famous Diamond Sutra. Other groups are the Illuminated Wisdom Sutras (Fang Guang Ban Rou, 30 volumes), Maha Wisdom Sutras (Mohe Ban Rou, 30 volumes), Praised-in-Buddha's-Light Wisdom Sutras (Guang Zan Ban Rou, 10 volumes), Way-of-Cultivation Wisdom Sutras (Dao Xing Ban Rou, 10 volumes), Academic-Studies Wisdom Sutras (Xue Pin Ban Rou, 10 volumes), Victorious-Heaven-King Wisdom Sutras (Sheng Tian Wang Ban Rou, 7 volumes), Humane-King Wisdom Sutras (Ren Wang Ban Rou, 2 vol¬umes), Cosmic Reality Wisdom Sutra (Shi Xiang Ban Rou, 1 volume), and Manjusri Wisdom Sutra (Wen Shu Ban Rou, 1 volume). The Heart Sutra is not one of these sutras, but is the summary of all of them. Hence, the Heart Sutra describes the gist of Mahayana philosophy.
The Heart Sutra, or Hrdaya Sutra in Sanskrit and Xin Jing in Chinese, is a shortened form; its full name is "The Great Heart Sutra of the Transcendental Wisdom to Reach the Other Shore", or Maha-Prajna-Paramita-Hrdaya Sutra in Sanskrit, and Mo-He Ban-Ruo Bo-Luo-Mi-Tuo Xin Jing in Chinese. The term "heart" in the Heart Sutra is often mis-understood to refer to the human heart or mind; "heart" here means "the essence". "To reach the other shore" figuratively refers to "crossing the sea of suffering from the shore of samsara (phenomenal world) to the shore of nirvana (transcendental reality)."
The Heart Sutra has the rare distinction of being a sutra accepted and recited in virtually all schools of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Like all Mahayana and Vajrayana sutras, it is generally not accepted in Theravada Buddhism because Theravadins thought that its teaching was a later addition, and not originally taught by Guatama Buddha.
Without explanation, the Heart Sutra is quite incomprehensive to many people. This is probably the main reason why it is very well known but hardly understood. The difficulty is twofold. Firstly, the language is very concise, often with a single word representing a whole concept that may require many paragraphs to explain. Secondly, the concepts are profound, often teasing the comprehension of the highest intellect.
It is significant to point out that great truths in Buddhism, unlike in Western philosophy generally, are not derived from intellectual speculation, but from deep meditation whereby the meditator directly experiences reality, and not merely intellectualizes on it. For example, as we shall read shortly in the Heart Sutra, when Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva says that form is emptiness, and emptiness is form, he discovers this great truth from direct experience, and not from intellectual reasoning. In other words, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva actually perceives that form is emptiness, and emptiness is form.
To have an experience of the difficulty of understanding the Heart Sutra, let us read the following English version literally translated from the Chinese. Do not be discouraged if you find it quite incomprehensible; most people do.
Literal Translation of the Heart Sutra
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva coursing deeply through prajna-paramita, perceives five skandhas all empty, overcomes all suffering and calamity.
Sariputra, form no different from emptiness, emptiness no different from form. Form is emptiness, emptiness is form. Feeling, thought, activity, consciousness are also thus.
Sariputra, all phenomena empty characteristics: non-arising, non-ceasing; non-defiled, non-pure; non-adding, non-subtracting. Thus in emptiness, no form, no feeling, thought, activity, consciousness. No eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, intellect consciousness. No form, sound, smell, taste, touch and phenomena. No realm of eye till no realm of intellect consciousness.
No ignorance and no ignorance termination; till no age-death and no age-death termination. No suffering, cause, extinction, path. No wisdom and no merits. Thus no attainment whatsoever. Bodhisattva, thus due to prajna-paramita. Heart no obstruction; thus no obstruction. No fear, far from delusion and dreams, perfect nirvana.
All Buddhas of three times, due to prajna-paramita thus, attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi.
Thus know prajna-paramita is great god mantra, is great bright mantra, is no-top mantra, is no-so-so mantra. Able to eliminate all suffering. Really true, no falsehood. Say prajna-paramita mantra; thus say gate, gate, para gate, para samgate, bodhi svaha.
The above is the complete Heart Sutra literally translated from the Chinese version, which in turn was translated by the great Tang Dynasty monk, Xuan Zang (Hsuan Tsang), from the original Sanskrit. Xuan Zang (596-664) was the famous Chinese pilgrim who went to India to bring Buddhist scriptures back to China. In India he defeated masters of sixteen various schools in debates on spiritual matters held in Indian languages. He was so highly regarded that Emperor Harsha of India publicly kissed his feet as a mark of respect.
The Heart Sutra, which describes the perfect Enlightenment of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, had special significance for Xuan Zang. During his dangerous journey to India across Central Asia, conditions were so harsh that even his horse died and he plodded on alone. He recorded in his diary that "everywhere there is only desert sand and white bones." Sometimes he saw groups of people in the distance, but they turned out to be illusion. Two things kept him going: one, his vow that if he did not reach India, he would "rather move westward and die, than retreat eastward to live"; two, his chanting of the Guan Yin mantra. Guan Yin Bodhisattva is the Chinese term for Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva.
Once, Xuan Zang almost died, after travelling for five days without a drop of water. He prayed to Guan Yin Bodhisattva saying "I, Xuan Zang, make this pilgrimage neither for wealth nor fame, but only for seeking the supreme true Dharma. I earnestly pray to Bodhisattva, have mercy on sentient beings in the East, may they benefit from the wisdom of Buddha's Spiritual Body." A cool breeze rejuvenated his spirit, and soon he came upon an oasis.
There are twelve Chinese versions of the same Heart Sutra translated by different masters, and ten are still extant. The earliest translation was by the celebrated Kumarajiva, who took eleven years (402-413) for this momentous task. The latest was by Shi Hu, who took twenty years (980-1100). Xuan Zang's translation which benefited much from the earlier Kumarajiva's version, took only one year (649) and is the most popular. All these different versions are the same in content; there is only some minor difference in expressions.
Even though the Heart Sutra is very short, it is very well organized. Like most sutras, it is divided into three sections, namely the Introduction, the Body, and the Conclusion. The first passage of the sutra quoted above is the Introduction, which sets the theme of the sutra as well as the three characteristics of Mahayana Buddhism, namely emptiness, wisdom and compassion. The next four passages constitute the Body, stating all the fundamental doctrines of Buddhism, namely detachment from self, detachment from phenomena, the phenomenal and the transcendental aspects of reality, the Four Noble Truths, the Eightfold Path, the Doctrine of Dependent Origination, the Six Paramitas, and the attainment of Enlightenment. The last passage is the Conclusion, suggesting a practical, immediate use of the Heart Sutra. If you wonder how this short sutra can contain so much information, subsequent chapters will supply the answer.
Because of linguistic differences between Chinese and English, the use of language in its English translation above may sound odd, but in Chinese it is accurate as well as poetic. It is worthwhile to know that translating Buddhist works from Sanskrit into Chinese was by imperial degree, carried out by some of the best minds in the Chinese empire. Each word would go through at least four stages of deliberation by a team of experts before it was accepted in the translation; Kumarajiva, for instance, had 800 scholars assisting him. Hence, readers can be assured that the Chinese Buddhist scriptures they read today, are the result of great care and scholarship of dedicated masters.
Besides illustrating the kind of classical Chinese language Buddhist scriptures are written in, the above literal translation also suggests a significant source of difficulty modern readers will face when reading a translation from a language vastly different in grammar and imagery, written more than thirteen centuries ago. Hence, by following the explanation on the Heart Sutra in this book, it is hoped that readers may also develop the skill as well as the knowledge to understand other Mahayana scriptures elsewhere, which are often translated literally in content as well as in syntax.
One positive step towards a better understanding of such translation, is to expand it figuratively. The following is my figurative translation into English of Xuan Zang's Chinese version of the Heart Sutra.
Figurative Translation of the Heart Sutra
In his deep meditation whereby he attains prajna-paramita, or the transcendental wisdom leading to perfect Enlightenment, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva perceives that the five skandhas, or the five aggregates that constitute a human being, are actually all empty. In achieving Enlightenment, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva overcomes for himself as well as for all beings, all suffering and calamity.
Sariputra, form is not different from emptiness; and emptiness is not different from form. Moreover, form is emptiness; and emptiness is form. In the same way, the other four of the five skandhas -- i.e. feel¬ing, thought, activity, and consciousness -- are also empty. Hence, what is regarded as self, which is a transient collection of the five aggregates, is actually empty.
Sariputra, all phenomena are emptied of characteristics. There are in reality no such characteristics as arising or ceasing of phenomena. Phenomena are neither defiled nor pure. Phenomena are neither added nor subtracted from reality. Therefore, reality is transcendentally empty.
Regarding self, in transcendental reality, there are no form, no feeling, no thought, no activity, and no consciousness. Regarding phenomena, in transcendental reality, there are no eye-consciousness, no ear-consciousness, no nose-consciousness, no tongue-consciousness, no body-consciousness, and no intellect-consciousness. As a result of the absence of these six kinds of consciousness, there are no form, sound, smell, taste, touch and phenomena.
Thus, the six realms of defilement -- which are present in the phenomenal world, and are caused by the six kinds of consciousness, from eye-consciousness till intellect-consciousness -- are not found in transcendental reality.
The doctrine of dependent origination -- which explains how the phenomenal world originates from the twelve conditions of ignorance, activity, consciousness, modality, six entries, contact, feeling, desire, attachment, karma, birth, and age-death -- does not operate in transcendental reality experienced in Enlightenment. Hence, in enlightenment there are no conditions or termination of conditions: from the first condition, i.e. no ignorance as well as no termination of ignorance, till the twelfth condition, i.e. no age-death as well as no termination of age-death.
In transcendental cosmic reality, the four noble truths do not operate: thus, there are no suffering, no cause of suffering, no extinction of suffering, and no noble eightfold path to extinguish suffering.
The six paramitas, or the six perfections of wisdom, also do not operate: thus, there are no perfection of charity, of discipline, of tolerance, of perseverance, of meditation, and of transcendental wisdom. The latter three perfections pertain to wisdom, while the first three pertain to merits. Hence, there are no wisdom and no merits in transcendental cosmic reality.
Bodhisattvas realize that originally there was Enlightenment, so there is actually no new attainment of Enlightenment. This realization is due to prajna-paramita or the transcendental wisdom of Buddhism. Thus the mind of a Bodhisattva has no obstruction, and as a result of this, there is also no obstruction in phenomenal existence. So a Bodhisattva has no fear whatsoever, and he is free from delusion and illusion, therefore attaining perfect nirvana.
All Buddhas of the three time dimensions, i.e. Buddhas of the past, present and future, attain anuttara-samyak-sambodhi, or the supreme perfect wisdom, because of their understanding and experience of prajna-paramita.
This Heart Sutra therefore is the great mantra of gods, the great mantra of wisdom, the supreme mantra, the mantra that surpasses whatsoever other mantras, and is able to eliminate all suffering. It is such a wonderful mantra because whatever is said in it is really true, without any falsehood. If you wish to recite this prajna-paramita mantra, recite as follows: gate, gate, para gate, para samgate, bodhi svaha.
Even though the peculiar grammatical and syntactical aspects of the literal translation have been overcome, and the language is clear, some readers still may not understand the sutra. This is because of the second major difficulty, i.e. the profundity of its concepts. For example, we may understand the meaning of the expression "form is emptiness, emptiness is form", yet we may not understand the underlying concept, such as why is form the same as emptiness. Moreover, we may not be familiar with some Buddhist terms, like phenomenal world and transcendental reality. These problems will be dealt with in detail in the following chapters, which will also reveal numerous cosmic truths known in Buddhist philosophy centuries before modern science.
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